Proposed Bills on: Adaptation

H.R. 6:   Renewable Fuels, Consumer Protection, and Energy Efficiency Act of 2007. This is the omnibus Senate energy bill for 2007. It contains a variety of provisions intended to promote the development and deployment of biofuels, energy efficiency, carbon capture and storage, environmentally sustainable public buildings, and includes a measure to increase the corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standard. This summary will focus on those provisions most directly relevant to climate change.

· Among other provisions, the bill establishes a renewable fuel standard, to reach 36 billion gallons by 2022, with 21 billion of those gallons to be from advanced biofuels. The bill mandates that renewable fuels produced from facilities that commence operations after enactment shall achieve at least 20% reduction in life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, compared to gasoline. The bill also directs the Presidnet to establish criteria for a system of voluntary labeling of renewable fuels based on life cycle greenhouse gas emissions.

· The bill directs the President to establish a program to provide grants for research support to facilitate the development of sustainable markets and technologies to use woody biomass and other low carbon fuels, including research into methods of assessing and certifying the impacts of low-carbon fuels with respect to reductions in lifecycle GHG emissions, among other impacts.

· The bill also directs the Secretary of Energy to establish a grant program to encourage the production of advanced biofuels. It requires the Secretary to award grants to the proposals for advanced biofuels with the greatest reduction in lifecycle GHG emissions compared to the comparable vehicle fuel lifecycle emissions in calendar year 2007, with at least a 50% such reduction needed to be eligible.

· The bill amends the Clean Air Act to direct the Administrator of the EPA to work with the EPA to conduct 2 studies on the effects of increased domestic use of renewable fuels under this act, including an assessment and quantification of significant changes in GHG emissions, among others.

· Among other provisions, the bill directs the Secretary of Energy to conduct an applied research program for plug-in electric drive vehicle technology, including development of control systems optimized for reducing greenhouse gas emissions; it also directs the Secretary to establish a competitive program to provide grants for demonstrations of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. As part of the criteria, applicants are required to record GHG emissions.

· The bill also amends the Energy Policy Act of 2005 to establish an Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Worker Training. It directs the Secretary of Energy to establish a competitive grant program for States to administer renewable energy and energy efficiency workforce development programs, and requires the Secretary to give priority to those States whose programs will be in line with meeting national and State goals for reducing GHG emissions, among other goals.

· The bill requires the Secretary of the Interior to develop a national assessment of the quantity of carbon stored in and released from terrestrial ecosystems, including from human-caused and natural fires, and the annual flux of GHGs in and out of terrestrial ecosystems. As part of the assessment, the Secretary must determine the processes that control the flux of GHGs in and out of terrestrial ecosystems; estimate the potential for increasing carbon sequestration in natural and managed terrestrial ecosystems; develop near-term and long-term adaptation strategies or mitigation strategies that can be employed to enhance the sequestration of carbon in terrestrial ecosystems, to reduce emissions of GHGs, and to adapt to climate change.

· The bill also requires the Secretary of the Interior to develop a method for measuring, monitoring, quantifying, and monetizing covered GHG emissions and reductions, including methods for allocating and managing offsets or credits.

· The bill directs the Secretary of Transportation to increase Corporate Average Fuel Economy regulations to achieve a combined standard for passenger cars and light trucks of at least 35 miles per gallon by 2020. For model years 2021 through 2031, the Secretary would have to establish the "maximum feasible" standard for the fleet. In establishing the maximum feasible standard, the bill directs the Secretary to consider the emissions of GHGs over the lifecycle of the fuel and the resulting costs to human health, the economy, and the environment.

· The bill amends the Energy Policy Act of 2005 to establish a program to promote and fund carbon capture and storage research, development, and demonstration. It authorizes a total of $1.425 billion for various of activities related to carbon capture and storage, including: fundamental science and engineering research; field testing of carbon dioxide sequestration in operating and depleted oil and gas fields, and geological formations including saline formations and unmineable coal seams; not less than 7 large-volume sequestration tests involving at least 1 million tons of carbon dioxide per year in a diversity of geological formations across the United States; and an assessment of the national capacity for carbon dioxide storage. The bill also directs the Secretary of Energy to establish a competitive grant program for the demonstration of carbon capture and storage from industrial sources.

· The bill also requires the Administrator of the EPA to establish a competitive grant demonstration program for projects to capture and store or use the carbon dioxide emitted from the Capitol power plant as a result of burning coal.

· In addition, the bill requires the Secretary of the Interior to develop a national assessment of the quantity of carbon stored in and released from terrestrial ecosystems, including from human-caused and natural fires, and the annual flux of GHGs in and out of terrestrial ecosystems. As part of the assessment, the Secretary must determine the processes that control the flux of GHGs in and out of terrestrial ecosystems; estimate the potential for increasing carbon sequestration in natural and managed terrestrial ecosystems; develop near-term and long-term adaptation strategies or mitigation strategies that can be employed to enhance the sequestration of carbon in terrestrial ecosystems, to reduce emissions of GHGs, and to adapt to climate change.

· The bill also requires the Secretary of Commerce to establish within NOAA a program of scientific research on abrupt climate change, and authorizes up to $10 million between 2009 and 2014.

· Finally, the bill expresses the sense of Congress that “[d]evelopment of renewable energy through sustainable practices will help lead to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and enhance international development.

Sponsor: Rep. Nick Rahall (D-WV) (198 Cosponsors)

 

S. 1018:   Global Climate Change Security Oversight Act. The Act would “address security risks posed by global climate change,” by requiring that, not more than 270 days after the bill’s enactment, that the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) submit to Congress a National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) on the “anticipated geopolitical effects of global climate change and the implications of such effects on the national security of the United States.” The bill directs the DNI to use the mid-range projections of the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in preparing the NIE. Sponsor: Sen. Richard J. Durbin (D-IL) (8 Cosponsors)

 

S. 1177:   Clean Air Planning Act of 2007. Among other provisions, this bill promulgates declining annual national pollutant tonnage limitations for emissions of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, mercury, and emissions from the electric generating sector. It also establishes allowance trading programs for these pollutants. In addition, it establishes a Climate Action Trust Fund, to be funded by revenues from auctions of allowances from the separate trading programs, and to be used for clean and low-carbon energy technology research and development, adaptation assistance for workers and communities negatively affected by climate change and greenhouse gas regulation, and wildlife and habitat conservation and adaptation. Sponsor: Sen. Thomas Carper (D-DE) (7 Cosponsors)

 

S. 1538:   Intelligence Authorization Act of 2008. Among other provisions authorizing appropriations for the intelligence and intelligence related activities of the United States Government, this bill directs the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) to, not later than 270 days after enactment, submit to Congress a National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) on the anticipated geopolitical effects of global climate change and the implications of such effects on the national security of the United States. (This provision was included in the form of an amendment sponsored by Sens. Feinstein, Hagel, Warner, Whitehouse, Snowe, and Mikulski). ( Cosponsors)

 

S. 1579:   Coastal Zone Enhancement Reauthorization Act of 2007. Among other provisions amending the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, this bill authorizes coastal states, in preparing and carrying out its coastal management, to conduct assessments, mapping, modeling, and forecasting of the effects of climate change on the coastal zone. Sponsor: Sen. Olympia Snowe (R-ME) (2 Cosponsors)

 

S. 1581:   Federal Ocean Acidification Research and Monitoring (FOARAM) Act of 2007. This bill would establish an Interagency Committee on Ocean Acidification whose role is to oversee the creation of a plan designed to improve the understanding of the role of increased ocean acidification on marine ecosystems, including the effects of anthropogenic atmospheric carbon dioxide on ocean chemistry. In its finding section, the bill cites the oceans’ role in helping mitigate the effects of global warming by absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Sponsor: Sen. Frank Lautenberg (D-NJ) (1 Cosponsors)

 

S. 1696:   Department of the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2008. Among other provisions, this bill appropriates $10 million to the EPA for the purpose of providing competitive grants for research into, among other purposes, developing strategies to mitigate climate change. In addition, the bill states the sense of the Senate Appropriations Committee that “a robust climate change management research program will be essential for the Forest Service to sustain forest health and biodiversity and protect a wide range of natural resources,” and appropriates $2.5 million to expand the Forest Service’s climate science research program; the Committee directs the agency to use these funds to develop forest management techniques that adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change. The bill also appropriates $2.275 to the EPA to fund research activities in support of future rulemaking activities on greenhouse gas (GHG) regulation. It also appropriates $2 million to the EPA to use its existing authority under the Clean Air Act to develop and publish a rule requiring mandatory reporting of GHG emissions above appropriate thresholds in all sectors of the economy; the bill further directs the EPA to publish a final rule no later than December 31, 2008, and to include in its rule reporting of emissions resulting from upstream production and downstream sources. Sponsor: Sen. Dianne Feinstein (D-CA) ( Cosponsors)

 

S. 1766:   Low Carbon Economy Act of 2007. This bill is intended to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the production and use of energy. It would establish a cap-and-trade system for GHG emissions, beginning in 2012. The bill’s goal is to reduce United States GHG emissions to 2006 levels by 2020 and to 1990 levels by 2030. Facilities subject to the cap are petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants and liquefied natural gas (LNG) facilities, importers of liquid fossil fuels, importers and manufacturers of non-carbon dioxide GHGs, large coal-consuming facilities, and manufacturers of adipic or nitric acid, aluminum smelters. The bill establishes a technology accelerator payment (TAP), which regulated entities can pay in lieu of submitting an emission allowance; the initial price of the TAP is $12/metric ton of carbon dioxide (CO₂)equivalent in 2012, increasing at a rate of 5% above the rate of inflation per year. Funds received under the TAP mechanism will be used to fund technology development and deployment. Emission allowances will be allocated to industry sectors: 12% to coal mines; 7% to petroleum refineries; 4% to natural gas processing facilities; 54% to electricity generating facilities; 4% to nonfuel regulated activities; and 19% to carbon-intensive manufacturing facilities. 9% of allowances will be allocated to states, and allowances will also be allocated for agricultural projects and for early reductions according to rules yet to be established. The bill creates bonus allowances for carbon capture and sequestration, starting at an allowance-to-ton of sequestered CO₂ of 3.5/1 in 2012, and declining to .5/1 in 2039. The bill specifies that 24% of all allowances to be auctioned at the start of the program, increasing to 53% by 2030. Auction proceeds will be used to fund the Energy Technology Deployment Fund, for research, development, and deployment of low-carbon technologies, as well as international technology deployment. Auction funds will also be deposited in a Climate Adaptation Fund to mitigate the effects of climate change; and the Energy Assistance Fund, to be used to ease the financial impact of higher energy costs. Sponsor: Sen. Jeff Bingaman (D-NM) (6 Cosponsors)

 

S. 2156:   SECURE Water Act. This bill would direct the Secretary of the Interior to establish a climate change adaptation program to assess the risks of climate change impacts on watersheds that contain a federally authorized reclamation project; and to assure that strategies are developed to address those risks and impacts. The bill also requires the Secretary of Energy to assess and address the risks and impacts of global climate change on water supplies that are required for the generation of hydroelectric power at each Federal water project that is applicable to a Federal Power Marketing Administration. In addition, the bill directs the Secretary of the Interior to establish and lead a climate change and water intragovernmental panel to review the current scientific understanding of each impact of global climate change on the water resources of the United States and to develop strategies to improve data collection and analysis as necessary. Sponsor: Sen. Jeff Bingaman (D-NM) (5 Cosponsors)

 

S. 2191:  

NOTE:  For a full range of Pew Center resources for Lieberman-Warner, including in depth analysis, a longer summary,  a complete timeline, and links to relevant external documents and media, please click here

The Lieberman-Warner Climate Security Act (L-W CSA). This bill would establish a cap-and-trade program within the United States requiring a 70% reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from covered sources, which represent over 80% of total U.S. emissions. The bill as amended also includes complementary policies, such as a low carbon fuel standard and provisions aimed at enhancing energy efficiency. Taken together, the bill’s sponsors believe these provisions will reduce overall U.S. GHG emissions roughly 63% by 2050.

The L-W CSA divides the six GHGs into two categories: Group I (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, and perfluorocarbons) and Group II (hydrofluorcarbons). For all GHGs, the bill uses the common unit of measurement CO₂ equivalent (CO₂e)—the quantity of GHGs that the U.S. EPA has determined makes the same contribution to global warming as one metric ton of CO₂. The L-W CSA would create two separate caps, one covering facilities that produce HFCs and the other covering facilities that:

·  Use more that 5,000 tons of coal annually;

·  Process, produce, or import natural gas;

·  Produce or import petroleum or coal-based fuel that when combusted will emit a Group I GHG;

· Produce for sale or distribution or import more than 10,000 CO₂e of chemicals that are group I GHGs, assuming no capture or permanent sequestration

· Emit as a by-product of HCFC production more than 10,000 CO₂e of HFCs

Overall, the two caps combined are expected to cover over 80% of total U.S. GHG emissions, although some process related emissions are not covered.

The cap on facilities producing HFCs would start in 2010 at 300 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MMTCO₂e) and decline to 90 MMTCO₂e by 2037, remaining at that level through 2050. Emissions from all other covered facilities would be capped at 5775 MMTCO₂e in 2012, with this cap decreasing annually to 1732 MMTCO₂e in 2050. The two caps combined would result in roughly a 19% reduction from 2005 levels in 2020 and a 70% reduction from 2005 levels by 2050.

Beginning in 2012 and continuing through 2030, the L-W CSA would provide transition assistance in the form of free allowances to electric power generators (19%), manufacturers (10%), fuel producers or importers (2%), HFC producers and importers (2%), and rural electric cooperatives (1%). In addition, 5% of the total emission allowance account will be allocated to early actors from 2012-2017 and 4% for carbon, capture and sequestration activities from 2012-2030. Approximately 30.5% of the total allowance account will be set aside from 2012-2050 for other entities, including states, load-serving entities, farms and forests, coal mines, and others. Starting in 2012, 26.5% of allowances would be auctioned (including 5% for an early auction to be held shortly after enactment), with the proceeds going to energy technology deployment, low-and middle-income energy consumers, adaptation efforts in the U.S., and programs to support energy independence and national security. Over time, the auction will grow so that by 2031, 69.5% of the allowances would be auctioned and the revenue used for these purposes.

The L-W CSA allows covered facilities to satisfy up to 15% of their compliance obligation with specific domestic offsets. An additional 15% can be covered using international emission allowances. Unlimited banking is allowed and owners and operators of covered facilities can borrow up to 15% of their annual compliance obligation from future years. The L-W CSA also creates a Carbon Market Efficiency Board to monitor the carbon trading market and implement specific cost relief measures, including increased borrowing and use of offsets.

The L-W CSA includes a review of the commitments of other major-emitting nations to reduce their GHG emissions. Eight years after enactment the President is authorized to require importers of GHG emission-intensive products from countries that have not taken action comparable to the U.S. to submit credits equal to those required of domestic manufactures.

Sponsor: Sen. Joseph I. Lieberman (I-CT) (9 Cosponsors)

11/1/07: Reported by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works Subcommittee on Private Sector and Consumer Solutions to Global Warming by 4-3; 12/5/08: Reported by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works by 11-8.

 

 

S. 2204:   Global Warming Wildlife Survival Act. This bill would require the Secretary of the Interior to establish a national strategy for assisting wildlife populations and wildlife habitats in adapting to the impact of global warming. The bill would also require the Secretary of Commerce to establish a national strategy to protect, maintain, and restore coastal and marine ecosystems so they are better able to withstand the impacts of global warming. Sponsor: Sen. Sheldon Whitehouse (D-RI) (1 Cosponsors)

 

S. 2211:   Global Warming and Acidification Coastal and Ocean Resiliency Act. This bill would require the Secretary of Commerce to establish a national strategy to protect, maintain, and restore coastal and marine ecosystems so that they are better able to withstand the additional stresses associated with global warming, including relative sea level rise, and with ocean acidification. The bill requires that 40% of the funds it authorizes be made available for the carrying out of Federal responsibilities under the national strategy, and 60% of the funds shall be used to make grants for other entities to implement the strategy. The bill also directs the Secretary to establish a coastal climate change resiliency planning and response program to provide assistance to coastal states to develop and implement coastal climate change resiliency plans. Sponsor: Sen. Sheldon Whitehouse (D-RI) (1 Cosponsors)

 

S. 2232:   Foreign Aid Lessons for Domestic Economic Assistance Act of 2007. This bill would direct the Secretary of Commerce to establish a Native American Millennium Challenge Demonstration Project. The purpose of the project is to apply lessons learned from administering foreign aid to economic development assistance to Native Americans, including in such a manner that would build the capacity of Native people to deal with rapid change and uncertainty due to climate change. Sponsor: Sen. Ted Stevens (R-AK) (3 Cosponsors)

 

S. 2284:   Flood Insurance Reform and Modernization Act of 2007. This bill would amend the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 to, among other provisions, include within the National Flood Mapping Program of the National Flood Insurance Program: information from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) relating to the best available climate science and the potential for future inundation from sea level rise, increased precipitation, and increased intensity of hurricanes due to global warming. Sponsor: Sen. Christopher J. Dodd (D-CT) ( Cosponsors) 10/17/07—Reported by the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs by voice vote. 5/13//08—Incorporated into H.R. 3121 as an amendment, which passed the Senate 92-6 on 5/13/08.

 

S. 2307:  

Global Change Research Improvement Act of 2007. This bill would amend the Global Change Research Act of 1990 to direct the Chairman of the Federal Coordinating Council on Science, Engineering, and Technology to develop a 10-year strategic plan for the United States Global Climate Change Research Program. The bill also requires the President to establish an interagency committee to ensure cooperation and coordination of all Federal research activities pertaining to human-induced or natural changes in the global environment, including global climate change. The bill establishes an Integrated Program Office within the Office of Science and Technology Policy for the Global Climate Change Research Program. It also requires the Secretary of Commerce to establish a National Climate Service within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The Service would include a national center and a network of regional and local facilities for operational climate monitoring and prediction.

Sponsor: Sen. John F. Kerry (D-MA) (1 Cosponsors) 12/4/07: Reported by the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation by voice vote.  

 

S. 2355:   Climate Change Adaptation Act. This bill would amend the National Climate Program Act to require the President to, not later than 2 years after enactment, present to Congress a 5-year national strategic plan to address the impacts of climate change within the United States. The plan must also include a plan to implement said strategy, coordinating with the states, local governments, and non-governmental entities to support similar efforts with respect to non-Federal natural resources. The bill also requires the Secretary of Commerce to conduct regional assessments of the vulnerability of coastal and ocean areas and resources to hazards associated with climate change. Sponsor: Sen. Maria Cantwell (D-WA) (3 Cosponsors) 12/4/07—Reported by the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation by voice vote.

 

S. 280:   Climate Stewardship and Innovation Act of 2007. The Act establishes a market-driven system of tradable greenhouse gas (GHG) allowances, administered by the Environmental Protection Agency, to begin in 2012. The Act would divide the economy into sectors—electricity, transportation, industry, and commercial—each subject to separate, sector-wide emissions cap, while allowing inter-sector trading. Allowances would be equal to a maximum of 6.13 million metric tons of CO2e after 2011, reducing to 5.239 million metric tons after 2019, 4.1 million after 2029, and 2.096 after 2049; the quantities of these allowances could be reduced, depending on the GHG emissions of the rest of the economy and emitters not subject to the cap. The bill would also establish a national GHG database and registry, as well as a Climate Change Credit Corporation, a non-profit corporation with a board appointed by the President of the United States. This corporation would be allocated a portion of tradable allowances, and be able to buy and sell other allowances, and is directed to use the proceeds from its trading activities to reduce costs borne by consumers as a result of the GHG reduction requirements of the Act. The Act also contains provisions to encourage the innovation and deployment of advanced, climate-friendly technologies; it also directs the Secretary of Commerce to conduct research on the impact of climate change on low-income populations around the world, and the costs of mitigating those impacts. Sponsor: Sen. Joseph I. Lieberman (I-CT) (9 Cosponsors)

 

S. 2970:  

Climate Change Drinking Water Adaptation Research Act. This bill would direct the EPA Administrator to—in cooperation with the Secretaries of Commerce, Energy, and Interior—establish and provide funding for a program of directed and applied research to assist suppliers of drinking water in adapting to the effects of climate change. The bill requires that the program be conducted through a nonprofit water research foundation, and be sponsored by drinking water utilities;it does not specify a particular foundation, nor detail the method of sponsorship. The bill would authorize $25 million for each fiscal year from 2009 through 2019.

Sponsor: Sen. Harry Reid (D-NV) (1 Cosponsors)

 

S. 3036:  

The Lieberman-Warner Climate Security Act of 2008
 

NOTE:  For a full range of Pew Center resources for this bill, including in depth analysis, a longer summary,  a complete timeline, and links to relevant external documents and media, please click here


·         The Act, if enacted into law, would establish a market-based cap-and-trade program for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the United States, and establish other measures to reduce GHG emissions.

·         This is the first cap-and-trade legislation to proceed to the Senate floor through regular order—that is, through the committee process. A previous version of this bill, then titled S.2191, was passed 11-8 by the Senate Environment and Public Works (EPW) Committee in December 2007. The version that will debated on the Senate floor has been extensively revised from the version passed by the EPW committee.

·         An estimated 87% of U.S. GHG emissions would be subject to the bill’s cap-and-trade program. Those required to submit emissions allowances under the program include: coal-fired power plants and other entities that use more than 5,000 metric tons of coal, natural gas processors and importers, petroleum processors and refiners, manufacturers and importers of more than 10,000 metric tons of GHGs (as measured in CO2 equivalents), and any entity that emits more than 10,000 metric tons (CO2e) of HFCs as a byproduct of the manufacture of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).  The bill establishes a separate cap-and-trade system for HFCs produced or imported (including those in products and equipment).

·         The cap-and-trade program would reduce GHG emissions from covered sectors by 4% below 2005 levels by 2012; 19% below 2005 levels by 2020; and 71% below 2005 levels by 2050.

·         The bill would allocate 75.5% of all allowances for free in 2012— including 18% to power plants, 11% to manufacturers, 2% to petroleum refiners, and 0.75% to natural gas processors (transitioning to zero in 2031); 12.75% to electricity and natural gas local distribution companies for the benefit of energy consumers, and 15% to states, etc. The proportion of allowances auctioned would increase from 24.5% in 2012 to 58.75% by 2032.

·         The bill would establish numerous measures to contain the cost of the cap-and-trade program, including allowing the use of domestic and international offsets, and the banking and borrowing of allowances; establishing a Carbon Market Efficiency Board empowered with certain cost-relief powers; and establishing a “cost-containment auction” of a fixed quantity of allowances each year that will initially be offered only to those with compliance obligations and within a certain price range. The bill also establishes a working group that will create regulations designed to protect the market from fraud and manipulation.

·         The bill would provide funds to compensate low-income energy consumers and assist in worker transition.

·         The bill would provide funding and incentives for development and deployment of geological carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technology, with a goal of constructing 5-10 commercial coal-burning electricity facilities using CCS.

·         The bill would also provide funds for:  renewable energy; increasing the energy efficiency of buildings, appliances, manufacturing; research into low-carbon electricity generation and advanced energy projects; increasing the use and manufacture of hybrid and advanced vehicles; and increasing the production of cellulosic biofuels. It also includes a low-carbon fuel standard.

·         The bill would provide funds for the states for mass transit projects, and wildlife conservation and adaptation projects, among others.

·         The bill has a number of international provisions, including a measure that would require importers of certain commodities from countries that do not have GHG control programs to submit special allowances, as well as funds for assisting vulnerable communities abroad, promoting international technology development, and conserving forests and wildlife in other countries.

 

Sponsor: Sen. Barbara Boxer (D-CA) ( Cosponsors) 6/2/08: Cloture on the motion to proceed to the bill invoked by the Senate by 74-14; 6/6/08: the Senate failed to invoke cloture to close debate on the bill by 48-36.

 

S. 309:   Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act. The Act, through an amendment to the Clean Air Act, requires the United states to reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to 80% of 1990 levels by the year 2050, in the following stages: 1/3 of 80% of 1990 levels by 2030; 2/3 of 80% of 1990 levels by 2040; and fully 80% of 1990 levels by 2050. The Act gives the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency the discretion to propose GHG reductions, and provides a menu of policy options, including market-based measures—such as emissions trading—among others, to achieve those reductions. The bill also requires the Administrator to mandate that, not later than January 1, 2010, each fleet of highway vehicles over 10,000 pounds sold by a manufacturer in the United States must, beginning in model year 2020, meet the following GHG tailpipe emissions standards: not more than 850 carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e) grams per mile (gpm) for highway vehicles with a gross vehicle weight (GVW) rating between 10,001 and 26,000 pounds; and not more than 1,050 CO₂e gpm for such vehicles with a GVW rating of more than 26,000 pounds. The bill gives the Administrator the discretion to increase the stringency of these administrators after model year 2020. Among other provisions, the bill also contains GHG emission standards for electric generation units and energy efficiency and promotes research into carbon capture and sequestration. Sponsor: Sen. Bernard Sanders (I-VT) (11 Cosponsors)

 

S. 317:   Electric Utility Cap and Trade Act of 2007. The Act creates a greenhouse gas (GHG) cap-and-trade system for electric generating facilities of 25 megawatt capacity or larger. Beginning in 2011, the Act would limit total GHG emissions by these facilities to their total emissions in 2006; to 2001 levels in 2015; in each year from 2016 to 2019, by an additional 1% reduction based on the emissions reduction of the previous year; and in each year from 2020 onwards, by an additional 1.5% reduction based on the emissions reduction of the previous year. Emissions credits would be distributed through a mix of auction and allocation, with proceeds from auctions going into a Climate Action Trust Fund. Monies from the Trust Fund would be used to fund research and development for climate-friendly technologies, and adaptation assistance for workers and communities, among other purposes. Sponsor: Sen. Dianne Feinstein (D-CA) (1 Cosponsors)

 

S. 485:   Global Warming Reduction Act of 2007. The Act would “establish an economy-wide global warming pollution emission cap-and-trade program,” among other provisions. The bill declares that it shall be a goal of the United States to work with other greenhouse gas (GHG)-emitting countries to limit average global concentrations of GHGs at 450 parts per million, and to reduce emissions to 65% of year 2000 levels by 2050. The bill requires the United States to reduce emissions to 1990 levels by 2020; by at least an additional 2.5 percent below each preceding year between 2021 and 2030; and by at least an additional 3.5 percent each preceding year between 2031 and 2050. The bill directs the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to design the cap-and-trade system, and gives the Administrator discretion over the scope of the system, including which sectors would be subject to the cap. The bill also directs the President, in conjunction with the Administrator and other Federal agencies, to submit to Congress a plan for how the tradable allowances should be distributed. In addition, the bill directs the Administrator to establish GHG emissions standards for passenger vehicles which will meet or exceed the standards adopted by the California Air Resources Board in September 2004. The bill also contains provisions concerning research and development, energy efficiency standards, the renewable portfolio standard, and carbon capture and sequestration, among others. Sponsor: Sen. John F. Kerry (D-MA) (2 Cosponsors)

 

H. Con. Res. 248:   Expressing the sense of the Congress that the United States Fish and Wildlife Service should incorporate consideration of global warming and sea-level rise into the comprehensive conservation plans for coastal national wildlife refuges. Sponsor: Rep. Donna M. Christensen (D-VI) ( Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 1507:   Salmon Economic Analysis and Planning Act. Among other provisions, the bill directs the Secretary of Commerce and the National Academy of Sciences to conduct scientific analysis of Federal salmon protection restoration and recovery actions, and to include in that analysis an identification of the effect of global climate change on ocean conditions and hydrological conditions in the Snake and Columbia Rivers and their salmon and steelhead-bearing tributaries; as well as an examination of how such global climate change effects might affect the Federal recovery actions of naturally spawning, wild salmon and steelhead populations. Sponsor: Rep. Jim McDermott (D-MA) (65 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 1585:   National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008. This bill was vetoed by the President, but contains the same provisions related to military planning and climate change as a subsequent version of this bill, H.R. 4986, by the same sponsor, which was signed into law by the President on 1/28/08. Sponsor: Rep. Ike Skelton (D-MO) (1 Cosponsors) 5/17/07: Passed the House 397-27; 10/1/07: Passed the Senate 92-3; 12/12/07: Conference report passed the House 370-49; 12/14/07: Conference report passed the Senate 90-3; 12/28/07: Vetoed by the President.

(Special note: A subsequent version of this bill, H.R. 4986, by the same sponsor, contains the same provisions related to military planning and climate change, and was signed by the President on 1/28/08)

 

H.R. 1961:   Global Climate Change Security Oversight Act. This bill requires the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) to prepare a National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) on the anticipated geopolitical effects of global climate change and the implications of such effects on the national security of the United States. Not later than 270 days after the DNI submits the required NIE, the bill directs the Secretary of Defense to submit to Congress a report on the projected effects of global climate change on the military installations and capabilities, and military operations of the United States as assessed by the NIE. In addition, the bill expresses the sense of Congress that the Secretary of Defense should address the climate change-related findings of the NIE as they relate to the armed forces in the next Quadrennial Defense Review. The bill also directs the Secretary of State to, not later than 270 days after the submittal of the NIE, to submit to Congress a report that addresses the potential for large migration flows in countries of strategic interest or humanitarian concern as a response to changes in climate and the implications for United States security interests; and the potential for diplomatic opportunities and challenges facing the United States as a result of social, economic, or political responses of groups or nations to climate change. Finally, the bill authorizes the Secretary of Defense to carry out research on the impacts of global climate change on the military, including war gaming and other simulations, and analysis of potential impacts of large-scale Arctic sea-ice melt, and severe weather events. Sponsor: Rep. Edward Markey (D-MA) (10 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 1975:   Northern Rockies Ecosystem Protection Act. Among other purposes, this bill designates certain National Forest System, National Park System, and Bureau of Land Management-administered public lands as components of a National Wilderness Preservation System, a National Wild and Scenic River System, and National Wildland Restoration and Recovery Areas. In the title establishing the National Wildland Restoration and Recovery System, the bill finds that “Recovery activities are required to reverse severe damage to native fish and wildlife populations and water quality in these areas and to facilitate the dispersal of species in response to climate change,” and mandates that “All lands within the Recovery System shall be managed so as to restore their native vegetative cover and reduce or eliminate invasive non-native species, facilitate native species diversity to the extent possible with climate change…” Sponsor: Rep. Carolyn Maloney (D-NY) (110 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 2082:   Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008. Section 407 of this bill would require the Director of National Intelligence to prepare a National Intelligence Estimate on the anticipated geopolitical effects of global climate change and the implications of such effects on the national security of the United States. ( Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 2327:   Polar Bear Protection Act of 2007. This bill seeks to repeal an exemption in the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 which allows the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies from Canada, and cites the stress that polar bear populations are under due to climate change. Sponsor: Rep. Jay Inslee (D-WA) (75 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 2337:   Energy Policy Reform and Revitalization Act of 2007. Among other provisions, this bill requires the Secretary of the Interior to develop a methodology for assessing the nation’s capacity to store carbon dioxide in geologic formations. It also requires the Secretary to conduct an assessment of the amount of carbon stored in terrestrial, aquatic, and coastal ecosystems, including estuaries; and to determine the potential for increasing carbon storage in natural ecosystems.

In addition, the bill mandates the creation of the National Resources Management Council on Climate Change to address the impacts of climate change on Federal lands, the ocean environment, and the Federal water infrastructure. It requires the Secretary of the Interior to promulgate a national strategy for assisting wildlife populations and their habitats in adapting to the impacts of global warming. The bill also directs the Secretary of Commerce to develop and implement a national strategy to predict, plan for, and mitigate the impacts on ocean and coastal ecosystems from global warming, relative sea level rise and ocean acidification; and ensure the recovery, resilience, and health of ocean and coastal ecosystems. The bill also authorizes $250 million to establish a National Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System to improve the nation’s ability to measure, track, explain, and predict events related directly and indirectly and indirectly to weather and climate change. Sponsor: Rep. Nick Rahall (D-WV) (7 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 2338:   Global Warming Wildlife Survival Act. Among other provisions, this bill states that it is the policy of the Federal Government to assist wildlife populations in adapting to and surviving the effects of global warming. The bill directs the Secretary of the Interior to, within two years of enactment, promulgate a national strategy for mitigating the impacts of global warming on wildlife populations in the United States. It also directs the Secretary to establish the National Global Warming and Wildlife Science Center within the United States Geological Survey. Sponsor: Rep. Norm Dicks (D-WA) (2 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 250:   National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Act which would, among other things, provide funding to study the earth’s climate and enhance our ability to predict and respond to climate variability and change. Sponsor: Rep. Vernon Ehlers (R-MI) (1 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 2537:  

Beach Protection Act of 2008. Among other provisions to amend the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, this bill would direct the Administrator of the EPA to conduct a study on the long-term impact of climate change on pollution of coastal recreation waters.

Sponsor: Rep. Frank PalloneJr. (D-NJ) (39 Cosponsors)

10/31/07: Reported by the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure by voice vote; 4/16/08: Passed the House by voice vote.

 

H.R. 2643:   Department of the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2008. Among other provisions, the bill declares that “it is the sense of the Congress that there should be enacted a comprehensive and effective national program of mandatory, market-based limits and incentives on emissions of greenhouse gases.” The bill appropriates $266 million for basic research on climate change to the Department of the Interior (through the USGS), the EPA, and the U.S. Forest Service. It also appropriates $50 million to establish a commission on climate change adaptation and mitigation. In addition, the bill appropriates $2 million to develop regulations to reduce GHG emissions, pursuant to the Supreme Court’s ruling in Massachusetts v. EPA. Sponsor: Rep. Norman Dicks (D-WA) ( Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 2701:   Transportation Energy Security and Climate Change Mitigation Act of 2007. This bill, among other provisions, mandates the establishment of a Center for Climate Change and Environment within the Department of Transportation, which would plan, coordinate, and implement department-wide initiatives and research to reduce transportation-related energy use, mitigate the effects of climate change, and address the impacts of climate change on transportation and infrastructure. The bill also directs the Administrator of the EPA to have the National Academy of Sciences identify the potential impacts of climate change on the nation’s water resources, watersheds, and water quality. It also directs the Secretary of the Army to ensure that water resources projects and studies carried out by the Army Corps of Engineers account for potential effects of climate change; and directs the Administrator of the Federal Emergency Management Agency to conduct a study of the increase in demand for the Agency’s services due to natural disasters that can be reasonably attributed to climate change. The bill also contains numerous provisions intended to make public and commercial transportation, and federal buildings, more energy-efficient. Sponsor: Rep. James Oberstar (D-MN) (15 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 2764:   The Department of State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 2008. This bill amends the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 to allow funds appropriated for agriculture, rural development, nutrition, population and health, energy, and conservation activities, and for the Economic Support Fund, to be used to support tropical forestry and biodiversity conservation activities and energy programs aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The bill also appropriates $195 million to support clean energy and other climate change programs in developing countries, including energy conservation, energy efficiency, clean energy technologies, carbon sequestration, and climate change mitigation and adaptation programs. ( Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 3221:   New Direction for Energy Independence, National Security, and Consumer Protection Act. This is the House of Representatives’ energy bill for 2007. The following summary includes only the provisions most pertinent to climate change.

· Among other provisions, the bill makes a Congressional declaration that it shall be United States policy to engage in international climate negotiations with the objective of creating a new instrument that will come into force by the time that the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol ends in 2012. Such an instrument will, at a minimum, require binding mitigation commitments from all major emitting countries. The title also mandates the creation of an Office on Global Climate Change within the State Department.

· The bill also authorizes funds to promote research in solar energy, biofuels, marine renewable energy, and geothermal energy, and authorizes funds for carbon capture and storage research, development, and demonstration.

· In addition, it directs the President to “establish an interagency committee to ensure cooperation and coordination of all Federal research activities” pertaining to human-induced or natural changes in the global environment, including global climate change.

· The bill contains provisions which direct each federal agency to annually inventory and report its GHG emissions, and requires the EPA to promulgate annual greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction targets for the total emissions of all agencies taken as a whole, for each fiscal year from 2010 through 2050.

· The bill also sets GHG emissions standards for federal vehicle fleets, based on the California Code of Regulations, and requires the Secretary of Energy to establish new efficiency standards for federal buildings.

· The bill requires the Secretary of the Interior to develop a methodology for assessing the nation’s capacity to store carbon dioxide in geologic formations. It also requires the Secretary to conduct an assessment of the amount of carbon stored in terrestrial, aquatic, and coastal ecosystems, including estuaries; and to determine the potential for increasing carbon storage in natural ecosystems.

· It also requires the Secretary of the Interior to create the National Resources Management Council on Climate Change to address the impacts of climate change on Federal lands, the ocean environment, and the Federal water infrastructure. It requires the Secretary to promulgate a national strategy for assisting wildlife populations and their habitats in adapting to the impacts of global warming. The title also directs the Secretary of Commerce to develop and implement a national strategy to predict, plan for, and mitigate the impacts on ocean and coastal ecosystems from global warming, relative sea level rise and ocean acidification; and ensure the recovery, resilience, and health of ocean and coastal ecosystems.

· The title also authorizes $250 million to establish a National Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System to improve the nation’s ability to measure, track, explain, and predict events related directly and indirectly and indirectly to weather and climate change.

· The Transportation and Infrastructure section of this bill, among other provisions, mandates the establishment of a Center for Climate Change and Environment within the Department of Transportation, which would plan, coordinate, and implement department-wide initiatives and research to reduce transportation-related energy use, mitigate the effects of climate change, and address the impacts of climate change on transportation and infrastructure. The title also directs Secretary of Transportation and the Administrator of the EPA to report to Congress on low-cost solutions to reducing congestion and transportation-related energy use and mitigating the effects of climate change.

· The Energy and Commerce section of this bill contains a number of energy efficiency provisions, among them: improving the schedule for consensus standards, updating appliance test procedures, new efficiency standards for lighting, residential boilers, industrial motors, washing machines, and dishwashers. The title also establishes new efficiency standards for power supplies and transformers for consumer electronic equipment.

· In addition, the bill mandates the creation of an Office of High-Performance Green Buildings, and sets out increased efficiency standards for federal buildings, as well as increased efficiency standards for state residential and commercial building codes. It also authorizes grants to support state implementation of green building codes.

· The title also provides technical assistance and a revolving fund for implementing combined heat and power (CHP) systems and sustainable energy infrastructure. Finally, the title contains a number of provisions promoting creation of a Smart Grid, and mandates the promulgation of a National Action Plan for Demand Response.

· The tax provisions of this bill expand and extend tax credits and deductions for renewable energy, energy efficient appliance credit for a variety of appliances produced after 2007, energy-efficient commercial buildings deduction for five years (through December 31, 2013), and allows electric utilities to depreciate smart electric meters over a five year period. In addition, the bill orders the Secretary of the Treasury and the National Academy of Sciences to review the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 to identify the types of and specific tax provisions that have the largest effects on carbon and other greenhouse gas emissions and to estimate the magnitude of those effects.

Sponsor: Rep. Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) (18 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 3957:   Water Use Efficiency and Conservation Research Act. Among other purposes, this bill would mandate the establishment of a research and development program to promote water use efficiency and conservation within the Environmental Protection Agency. In its findings section, the bill states that “climate change related effects are expected to exacerbate already scarce water resources in many areas of the country.” Sponsor: Rep. Jim Matheson (D-UT) (1 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 4174:   Federal Ocean Acidification Research and Monitoring (FOARAM) Act of 2007. This bill would establish an Interagency Committee on Ocean Acidification to oversee the creation of a plan to improve the understanding of the role of increased acidification on marine ecosystems. In the findings section, the bill cites the role of the oceans in mitigating the effects of global warming by absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide, and states that a third of anthropogenic carbon dioxide are absorbed by the oceans.  Sponsor: Rep. Thomas H. Allen (D-ME) (14 Cosponsors) 6/18/08: Reported by the House Committee on Science and Technology Subcommittee on Energy and Environment by voice vote; 6/25/08: Reported by the House Committee on Science and Technology by voice vote; 7/29/08: Passed the House by voice vote.

 

H.R. 4986:   National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008. Among various provisions authorizing appropriations for the Department of Defense, for military construction, and for the Department of Energy, this bill directs the Secretary of Defense that the first national security strategy and national defense strategy prepared after enactment shall include guidance for military planners to: assess the risks of projected climate change to current and future missions of the armed forces; update defense plans based on these assessments, including working with allies and partners to incorporate climate mitigation strategies, capacity building, and relevant research and development; and to develop the capabilities needed to reduce future impacts.

The bill requires that the next quadrennial defense review prepared after the date of the enactment of this subsection examine the capabilities of the armed forces to respond to the consequences of climate change, in particular, preparedness for natural disasters from extreme weather events and other missions the armed forces may be asked to support inside the United States and overseas.
Sponsor: Rep. Ike Skelton (D-MO) (1 Cosponsors)

1/16/08: Passed the House 369-46; 1/22/08: Passed the Senate 91-3; 1/28/08: Signed into law by the President.

 

H.R. 5402:   Climate Change Center and Clearinghouse Act of 2008. This bill would amend the Small Business Act to establish an Office of Environment, Energy, and Climate Change within the Small Business Administration, and would establish within said office a Climate Change Center and Clearinghouse. The Center and Clearinghouse would be charged with providing scientific, economic, and technical information to small business concerns on assessing and managing the impacts of climate change, and on savings and revenue opportunities afforded by carbon trading and Federal and State renewable energy incentive programs. The bill also requires the center to develop a carbon footprint calculator website. Sponsor: Rep. Peter Welch (D-VT) (9 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 5453:   Coastal State Climate Change Planning Act of 2008. This bill would amend the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 to require the Secretary of Commerce to establish a coastal climate change adaptation planning and response program. The program would provide grants to states to assist them in voluntarily developing and implementing coastal climate change adaptation plans. Sponsor: Rep. Lois Capps (D-CA) (10 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 5770:  

To provide for a study by the National Academy of Sciences of potential impacts of climate change on water resources and water quality. This bill would require the Administrator of the EPA to enter into an arrangement with the National Academy of Science to produce a study on potential impacts of climate change on water resources and water quality.

Sponsor: Rep. John Hall (D-NY) (9 Cosponsors)

6/4/08: Reported by the House Committee on Transportation by voice vote.

 

This bill is similar to Section 704 of H.R. 2701, sponsored by Rep. James Oberstar (D-MN), which was reported by the House Committee on Transportation by voice vote on 6/20/07. H.R. 2701 was subsequently incorporated into H.R. 3221, which was passed by the House by 241-172 on 8/4/07. However, the Section 704 language of H.R. 2701 was removed during the negotiation process between the House and Senate that ultimately produced H.R. 6, the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, which was signed by the President on 12/19/07.

 

H.R. 5976:  

United States Commission on Rebuilding America for the 21^st Century Act. This bill would establish the United States Commission on Rebuilding America for the 21^st Century. The Commission’s duties would include assessing the nation’s infrastructure needs in the 21^st century, and the challenges of meeting them. In its findings section, the bill states that the United States will need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions significantly to stave off the worst effects of global warming. The bill also cites the exacerbating effects of global warming on existing water challenges, and the changes it will make to natural hydrolog

Sponsor: Rep. Earl Blumenauer (D-OR) (24 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 6057:  

Polar Bear Seas Protection Act. This bill would amend the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act to prohibit preleasing, leasing, and related activities in the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Planning Areas unless a number of conditions are met. In its findings section, the bill states that there is a wide consensus among scientists that the Arctic is undergoing dramatic changes due to climate change, and that these changes are affecting vital sea ice habitat for a number of species, including polar bears, walrus, and seals. One of the conditions the bill would set for allowing activities it would otherwise prohibit is the listing of the polar bear as an endangered species or a threatened species, and the designation of critical habitat for it.

Sponsor: Rep. Jay Inslee (D-WA) (11 Cosponsors)

 

H.R. 6186:  

Investing in Climate Action and Protection (iCAP) Act. This bill would amend the Clean Air Act to establish a cap-and-trade system for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and for other purposes.

 The bill would regulate carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), sulfur hexaflouride (SF₆), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). The bill would also regulate nitrogen trifluoride (NF₃), which is a GHG not covered by the Kyoto Protocol, and, in addition, would regulate any other anthropogenic gas the Administrator of the EPA determines to have a global warming potential equal to or greater than carbon dioxide. According to the bill’s authors, the legislation would cover 94% of U.S. GHG emissions—87% through cap-and-trade.

 The cap-and-trade program would reduce covered emissions to 2005 levels by 2012, to 20% below 2005 levels by 2020, and to 85% below 2005 levels by 2050.The cap-and-trade program would cover emissions from: fossil fuel-fired power plants that emit more than 10,000 carbon dioxide equivalents (CO₂e) a year; industrial facilities that emit more than 10,000 CO₂e a year; producers or importers of petroleum or coal-based fuels, the combustion of which will produce more than 10,000 CO₂e a year; natural gas local distribution companies (LDCs) who deliver natural gas that will produce more than 10,000 CO₂e  a year when combusted; producers or importers of more than 10,000 CO₂e a year of HFCs, PFCs, SF₆, or NF₃, or any other fluorinated gas that is designated by the Administrator as a GHG; and “commercial-scale” geological carbon sequestration sites to cover any leakage.

In addition to the cap-and-trade program, the act will cover an additional 7% of U.S. GHG emissions through financial incentives to farmers and forest managers to reduce GHG emissions and increase storage as well as performance standards for coal mines, landfills, wastewater treatment operations, and large animal feeding operations that emit more than 10,000 CO₂e a year. The bill would direct the Administrator to publish and subject to regular review a list of such sources not later than 90 days after enactment, and establish the relevant performance standards not later than 2 years after that.

The bill would also set mandatory performance standards for coal-fired power plants with a generating capacity of 25 megawatts or more, and which derive more than 50% of annual fuel input from coal or petroleum coke. Plants which commence construction on or after January 1, 2009, would be required to capture and sequester 85% of their CO2 emissions. Plants which commence operation before January 1, 2020, would have to be in compliance with the performance standard by either January 1, 2016, or four years after they commence operation, whichever is later.  

The bill would auction 94% of all allowances in 2012, transitioning to a 100% auction in 2020.

Allowance auctions would begin in 2010. The bill would establish a number of funds in the U.S. Treasury, and deposit in them the following percentages of revenues from allowance auctions from 2010-2019. Dollar amounts listed in the following table are the bill’s author’s estimates. 

 

Fund	2010-2019		2020-2050		2012-2050
	% of allowance value	Est. annual funding ($ billions)	% of allowance value	Est. annual funding ($ billions)	Est. cumulative funding ($ billions)
General Fund of the Treasury	51	110	48	110	4,290 <