Table of Contents

Coral Reefs & Global Climate Change: Potential Contributions of Climate Change to Stresses on Coral Reef Ecosystems

Foreword  ii

Executive Summary  iii

I. Introduction  1

A. Coral Reefs and Reef Organisms  1
B. The "Coral Reef Crisis"  4
C. Climate and Environmental Change  5

II. Nonclimatic Stresses to Coral Reefs  7

A. Types and Categories of Stresses and Effects  7
B. Terrestrial Inputs  9
C. Overfishing and Resource Extraction  11
D. Coastal Zone Modification and Mining  13
E. Introduced and Invasive Species  13

III. Climatic Change Stresses to Coral Reefs  14

A. Coral Bleaching  15
B. Global Warming and Reef Distribution  17
C. Reduced Calcification Potential  19
D. Sea Level  21
E. El Niño-Southern Oscillation  21
F. Ocean Circulation Changes  22
G. Precipitation and Storm Patterns  22

IV. Synthesis and Discussion  24

A. Infectious Diseases  24
B. Predation  25
C. Connections with Global Climate Change and Human Activity  26
D. Regional Comparison  27
E. Adaptation  28

V. Resources at Risk  30

A. Socioeconomic Impacts  30
B. Biological and Ecological Impacts  31
C. Protection and Conservation  31

VI. Summary and Conclusions  32

References  34